Category: Questions and Answers

Question: We supply solvent-borne automotive coatings, and recommend that our customers flame treat their TPO components to 48 to 60 dynes/cm for best adhesion and durability. We have seen adhesion failures at higher dyne levels. Would you expect that? And, would your test markers be able to identify overtreatment?

Answer: First, you are correct that any polymer can be over-treated by either flame or corona. The mechanistic details of just what happens to the material’s surface layers are undoubtedly different for the two treating methods. But what basically occurs in either case is the surface layer gets etched and oxidized to the point where it may be water-wettable, but it has been so decimated by the aggressive treatment environment that it no longer anchors well to the bulk of the polymer. The paint adheres well to the surface layer, but the entire paint/surface layer will easily lift away from the bulk of the polymer.

Over-treatment will not cause a decrease in dyne testing results unless too much pressure or abrasive force is used during the test – this would have the same effect as mentioned above, with the untreated underlayer exposed at the surface. So, as long as a light application pressure is used, as directed in the instructions, ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens can definitely identify the excessive levels of surface treatment that you have found to cause defects.

The problems that arise from over-treated surfaces suggest that it should be standard practice to establish a realistic maximum treatment level, as measured by the dyne test, as well as a lower one. Your suggested range of 48 to 60 dynes/cm sounds reasonable, but I would think that for most applications you’d do fine with a surface energy of 44 dynes/cm or so for solvent-based paints. The presence and concentration of additives and pigments could affect this minimum, especially with thick parts, where there is a large polymer bulk compared to surface area. And, for waterborne or energy cured coatings, the required dyne level would increase substantially.

Finally, as this is a rigorous application (automotive finishing), I would recommend that your customer consider an experimentally designed study of treatment parameters and measured dyne levels vs. end-use quality and durability metrics. Tightening the window of optimal treatment level could prove commercially beneficial.

Question: My ink requires a minimum of 40 dynes/cm, and my film supplier says they run their poly at 56 dynes/cm. Should I use a 40 as a threshold test, or does the marker dyne level need to match the material? What range should I be using?

Answer: If the poly were actually at 56 dynes/cm when you tested it, a test with a 40 dyne/cm test marker would probably wet out so well and have such an attraction to the treated surface that it would permanently mark the film. That would tell you that the surface was way higher than 40 dynes/cm – if it was actually only 40 dynes/cm, the test fluid would start to bead up within two seconds or so. But there’s a lot more to the story than that.

Polymers lose treatment – especially when induced by corona treatment – over time and with downstream processing, so if a film tests at 56 dynes/cm at the end of your supplier’s extrusion line, you might find it to have a surface energy of as low as 44 dynes/cm a few weeks later, when you are ready to print it. (Please don’t take these treat loss numbers as gospel – they are for explanatory purposes only!) After a few months of storage in a hot and humid environment, it may well have dropped to below 40 dynes/cm. Slip agents are especially problematic when it comes to treatment loss over time, especially at elevated temperatures.

ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens measure surface energy by testing over a range of dyne levels, starting with a low enough level that you expect it will wet out for at least several seconds. In your case, I would recommend starting at 34 dynes/cm, and having the ability to test up to 56 dynes/cm, which is at the high end of what you are likely to ever see.

While your ink supplier probably is correct about 40 dynes/cm being the minimum acceptable treat level, it will still be instructive to test filmstock as it goes to press. Keeping records of dyne levels (and any comments testers may report) along with other process data may prove to be a valuable tool in troubleshooting at some point. Also, you may find that with higher substrate dyne levels you are able to increase press speed somewhat, and/or improve print quality. Quantifying these relationships can streamline your operation and ultimately reduce costs by enabling you to develop better specifications for your purchased rollstock.

Question: I am conducting an environmental review on ACCU DYNE TEST Marker Pens, and the SDS does not have the information I need for approval. I need to verify that “all the components of the product are either listed or exempt from listing under the TSCA section 8(b) chemical inventory list.” Your SDS lists the TSCA inventory but references only the TSCA section 5(a) (significant new use) for one ingredient. Can you please provide the requested information?

Answer: All constituents of ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens and surface tension test fluids (both use the same formulations) are listed in the TSCA inventory. For full information on 2-ethoxyethanol (CAS 110-80-5), please see https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2005/11/29/05-23421/2-ethoxyethanol-2-ethoxyethanol-acetate-2-methoxyethanol-and-2-methoxyethanol-acetate-significant.

Question: We purchase 4 ounce bottles of dyne solution at 72 dynes/cm. Can you tell me how you determine the expiration date? We don’t always use up the container before its shelf life is over.

Answer: Given that your purchase is of 72 dyne/cm surface tension test fluid, containing only reagent-grade water and Methyl Violet dye, this is an interesting question. The typical dyne solutions containing 2-ethoxyethanol and formamide (mixed per ASTM Std. D2578) definitely have a finite shelf life, as the constituents will react with one another over time, eventually changing their wettability regardless of whether they have been used or not. I do not believe it has ever been determined whether the dye acts as a catalyst, whether it is the cause, or whether the change happens with dye or without. At any rate, historically, suppliers of these test fluids have assigned a shelf life of approximately 3 to 4 months from date of manufacture. We are confident enough with our reagent grade materials to offer a shelf life of 5 months.

No data is available on the aging of water/Methyl Violet mixes. My best guess is that any degradation would be slower than with the binary mix dyne levels, but I am not willing to bet on that and change the expiration dates for this single constituent dyne level (the same can be said for 30 dyne/cm test fluid, which contains only 2-ethoxyethanol and Methyl violet dye, or 57 dyne/cm test fluid, which contains only formamide and Methyl violet dye).

A final concern pertaining to the stability of the 72 dyne/cm test fluid regards potential leaching of compounds from the packaging bottle (HDPE for narrow and wide mouth bottles; LDPE for dropper bottles) into the test fluid. A good deal of information on this phenomenon is available from the literature, but most of it pertains specifically to health effects, and most of the studies are not limited to additive-free polymer formulations. One review⁽¹⁾ presents a litany of mostly solvents and short-chain molecules that have been identified leaching from HDPE water pipes – if these do, in fact, leach from unmodified HDPE, they would generally reduce the surface tension of water over time. Another study⁽²⁾ demonstrates changes in LDPE over time when exposed to pure water. It seems reasonable to assume that eventually there will be some effect on the test fluid due to polymer leaching.

You could run a study comparing results from fresh test fluids vs. those that are aged, though this could be a challenge, as any number of variables may affect the aging process (average storage temperature and RH, degree of temperature and humidity cycling, exposure to light, etc.). Realistically, the best strategy would be to purchase one or two ounce bottles, which will offer full usage before there are any problems related to aging.

References:

1) no author cited, https://plasticpipesleach.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/White-Paper_A-Review-of-Chemical-Substances-Shown-to-Leach-from-Common-Drinking-Water-Piping-Materials.

2) S. Massey, A. Adnot, A. Rjeb, and D. Roy, “Action of water in the degradation of low-density polyethylene studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,” eXPRESS Polymer Letters, 1, No.8 (2007) 506–511.

Question: We test plastics at incoming inspection that will later be processed in a dry room at <1% RH, and your test procedure sets limits of 30% to 70% RH. What impact would you expect this to have on the validity of the dyne readings?

Answer: The only effect that I know of regarding humidity is that unusually high levels tend to increase the variability of test results. I suspect this is due to condensate on the sample surface. If that is, in fact, the mechanism, then extremely low humidity should not significantly affect readings for most materials. There is one notable exception to this – the nylon family of polymers (polyamides), which are quite hydrophilic in the presence of water vapor. If your testing includes these materials, I would strongly recommend that you do a controlled study, as discussed below. There is little question that a significant change in adsorbed water vapor will have an impact on surface energy test results.

You should keep in mind that evaporation rate comes into play with the dyne test, as discussed here, and extremely low humidity levels may affect the rate of test fluid evaporation. The question is whether the constituents of the test fluids evaporate preferentially in a moisture-starved, compared to a moisture-rich, environment. One would intuitively assume so, but both 2-ethoxyethanol and formamide are miscible in water, so it is not out of the question that they would be drawn more readily to the gas phase in the presence of water vapor. Dyne levels 58 and higher contain water in their formulations, so there is no question that extremely low humidity would to some degree alter the evaporation effect on these formulations.

The evaporation of 2-ethoxyethanol and formamide under varying humidity conditions is an interesting question from the perspective of thermodynamic theory (and if any readers are experts on such matters, I would love to have some feedback on this!), but it probably does not amount to much in terms of real-world test results. The only warning I would have is to pay strict attention to the two second timeframe specified by the test, as that does relate to evaporation, as well as to de-wetting behavior.

In summary, the only way to be sure of the effect would be to test identical sets of samples at both 1% and 40% to 60% RH, and compare the results. In light of the comments pertaining to nylon noted above, if that is a polymer you are testing, I do suggest doing this comparison. But, even if you find a significant humidity effect, as long as the environment in the incoming inspection area is kept constant, results derived there should still provide good predictive information regarding the behavior of the material in the dry room.

Another consideration is that the time elapsed from testing at incoming inspection to introduction to the dry room, as well as the time elapsed from introduction to the dry room to when the materials are processed, should all be controlled as closely as possible. The surface characteristics of plastics – especially those that have been corona treated – change over time and under varying environmental conditions. So, controlling these variables will be important in making the most of the dyne testing results in the context of your overall quality program.

With these considerations in mind, the dyne level number you come up with may not exactly match the material’s surface energy at the time it is processed at low humidity, but it should still offer data which will be effective in helping predict its adhesion and wetting characteristics.

Question: Why is two to three seconds the criterion of determination of a materials’ wetting level? Wouldn’t permanent wetting be a better criterion?

Answer: Actually, ASTM Std. D2578 and ISO 8296 both specify 2 seconds as the timeframe for evaluation, but we usually suggest 2 to 3 seconds, as most testers seem more comfortable when a brief range is specified, rather than a single instant in time. The timeframe is partly historical artifact, and partly due to the basis of the test, which derives from the behavior of retreating contact angles.

As the test fluid is applied to the surface, it is spread over a given area – usually about a square inch (about 6 or 7 square cm) either in a line or as a block. The results of the test are based on how (and if) the fluid film reticulates (shrinks) into individual beads, and this is obviously a process that takes a finite amount of time to achieve a balance.

I believe the 2 second timeframe was originally established to balance the effect of evaporation (the lower surface tension component of the test fluids evaporates more readily) and the effect of de-wetting per se. In other words, if you wait longer, evaporation will start to have more of an effect, which induces greater de-wetting. The idea is to evaluate at the time that surface forces per se are most important to the interaction of the test fluid and the substrate. When the test was first developed some 60 years ago, the 2 second timeframe was established as a way to standardize interpretation and meet this goal. Based solely on empirical evidence, it appears to be an effective specification, as no serious alternatives have been suggested.

Like most questions regarding surface energy testing, whereas the question may be simple, often the answers are not so much so!

Question: If chemical reactions affect the accuracy of dyne fluids, wouldn’t it be a good idea to store them in a refrigerator?

Answer: There’s no question that storing dyne solutions at a reduced temperature will slow down any chemical reactions, but that is only one factor that affects their aging or performance. There are a number of things to consider, as I’ll get to below. But first, please keep in mind that 55 to 60 dynes/cm test fluids will freeze at about +3°C (39°F), and we strongly recommend that a change of state be avoided (more information on that topic is available here). Also, in many cases low temperature storage ends up being at relatively high humidity. This can be detrimental, as there may be some degree of water vapor transmission over time from the storage environment into the bottles of test fluid (or the barrels of test markers).

For end-users of ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens and surface tension test fluids, the most critical considerations are ensuring that the test supplies and material samples are both at ambient temperature when the test is performed, and avoiding repeated temperature cycling from refrigerated to ambient. Temperature (and humidity) cycling are used in accelerated aging studies, which is enough to be said regarding that.

We’ll consider three different scenarios, and discuss the benefits and risks of refrigerated test fluid storage for each.

Some shops need to keep supplies on hand, but only use them for specific short run jobs. In this case, there may be periods of weeks or even a few months when they are not used at all, followed by short periods of relatively intense usage. In this situation, as long as it is ensured that the test markers or dyne fluids are removed from refrigeration long enough in advance – 24 hours is a nice conditioning period – then storing them refrigerated would probably be a prudent idea, especially if there is not an alternate storage area with good environmental control.

By contrast, in many industries – film extrusion, printing and converting for example – dyne testing is an ongoing requirement. In this case, the only reason to refrigerate would be if large “master” bottles (8 ounces or larger) are used to periodically replenish small bottles used for testing, or if ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens are bought in multiple sets for release to manufacturing as required. Generally speaking, we do not recommend refrigeration of inventory under these conditions, as the chance of using test supplies before they are adequately conditioned, along with the possibility of freezing and exposure to high humidity, combine to create more risk than I would care to take with sensitive reagents.

The last example would be for distributors who purchase to hold inventory for resale. In this case, it is clear that ideally it would be best to store refrigerated in a humidity-controlled environment. The most serious consideration is to make sure that the time your inventory is out of cold storage to fill orders is minimized, so its temperature stays as constant as possible.

So – what’s the quick and easy answer? Of course there is none – this is dyne testing after all, and every situation has its own unique twists – but if I had to make a blanket recommendation, I would say just store your product well sealed under normally controlled laboratory conditions in its original packaging. If your test supplies must be kept in the shop at elevated temperature or humidity, consider increasing the frequency of replenishment. Other than that, don’t worry yourself overmuch about the finer details of thermodynamics.

Question: What happens when your test fluids freeze and then re-thaw, and why are you so concerned with avoiding this when you ship in the winter?

Answer: With regard to how freezing may affect product performance, this is a difficult question to answer, as it comes down to the inability to prove a negative. To start, let me make it clear I am not a chemist by any stretch of the imagination; my background is experimental design and quality control. So, if there are any readers out there who can comment on the chemistry of the freeze/thaw cycle on binary (plus dye) mixtures, I would love to hear from you!

I have heard a number of anecdotal reports of changes in the reactions of surface tension test fluids after they have been frozen, but cannot personally remember ever seeing an effect myself. Nevertheless, subtle changes in the mixtures could have a meaningful impact under some circumstances: Water vapor adsorption could be accelerated; leaching of polymer from the bottle at the liquid/solid interface could be increased; the dispersion of the dye in the 2-ethoxyethanol/formamide mixture could be altered. Undoubtedly a good number of other possibilities exist as well, including the potential for shortened shelf life.

The biggest problem with determining any impact on performance is that to run a comprehensive study on the effect of freezing on test accuracy, you would need to test at least a dozen different dyne levels on an almost literally limitless variety of substrates – a Herculean task at best.

So, in the interest of caution and keeping the anecdotes in mind, I feel it is best to avoid freezing dyne solutions.

But, the most pressing issue with regard to freezing is damage in transit. ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens will sometimes lose their tip seals and leak during shipping once they have been frozen. I believe that the reason for this is that shrinkage of the plastic spring that controls the release of test fluid from the tip allows seepage of test fluid during the thaw cycle. Sometimes the seal between the pen barrel and the tip leaks for similar reasons. Rarely, the same problem can manifest with bottled test fluids – especially with dropper bottles.

The short and the long of it is that, based on brand stewardship considerations and replacement costs, as well as the potential for effects on measurement accuracy, we feel it is very important to avoid allowing ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens and surface tension test fluids to freeze.

Question: We have some dynes that are aging, but still appear to be fine. How can we assure that their performance will still be like new?

Answer: First, it is important to realize that there are three primary reasons why dyne solutions lose accuracy: contamination, evaporation, and aging, during which chemical reactions take place among the constituents. Recommended shelf life is discussed here.

Second, if there is any noticeable change in either the hue or the color density of the test fluids and they are near or past their expiration date, it is probably best to simply replace them.

As to qualification of test solutions, their most critical attribute by far is surface tension, and the most reliable measurement method is with a tensiometer. Please keep in mind that, especially for the lower dyne levels, the nominal surface tension value stated on the bottle is not exactly the same as its true surface tension. The discrepancies derive from the empirical nature of the test, which is based on wetting vs. de-wetting after two seconds of exposure to air. During that brief time frame, evaporation comes into play, altering the balance of test fluid constituents, especially at the periphery, where the liquid/solid interface is evaluated. The chart below shows the relationship of nominal vs. measured surface tension, based on actual production lot testing in our quality lab.

Be certain that the tensiometer is properly calibrated, and make any required adjustments to raw data to derive the correct adjusted surface tensions. Be sure to follow all instructions in your instrument’s owner’s manual. More detailed information on tensiometer calibration, use, and data adjustment is available here. It is critical that all test vessels and apparatus are entirely free of contamination.

As long as your results are all within about +/- 0.5 dynes/cm of the measured surface tensions shown below, the test fluids can be considered accurate with regard to wettability.

Nominal Dyne Level	Measured Surface Tension(b)	Specific Density(a)	Volumetric %2-ethoxyethanol(c)	Volumetric %Formamide(c)
30	28.6	0.929	100.0	0.0
32	30.1	0.950	89.5	10.5
34	32.6	0.982	73.5	26.5
36	35.5	1.014	57.5	42.5
38	37.8	1.037	46.0	54.0
40	39.9	1.056	36.5	63.5
42	42.1	1.072	28.5	71.5
44	44.2	1.085	22.0	78.0
46	46.0	1.095	17.2	82.8
48	48.0	1.103	13.0	87.0
50	49.9	1.110	9.3	90.7
52	51.9	1.116	6.3	93.7
54	54.1	1.122	3.5	96.5
56	56.9	1.127	1.0	99.0

Nominal dyne level and measured surface tension are shown in dynes/cm (equivalent to mJ/m²).

^(a) Measured in g/ml at 25°C; derived from data at http://www.accudynetest.com/visc_table.html.
^(b) Measured at 72°F (22°C); adjusted and corrected tensiometer results from Diversified Enterprises production lots.
^(c) ASTM Std. D2578-09: Standard test method for wetting tension of polyethylene and polypropylene films.

An alternate qualification technique would be to make contact angle measurements of the dyne solutions, when first purchased, on a known low surface energy material such as untreated virgin polyethylene, paraffin, or PTFE. If there is a doubt about the wettability of a given bottle of test fluid at a later date, a comparison of measured vs. expected results will identify any change in wettability. Either static (also known as Young’s) contact angles or retreating contact angles should be measured – not advancing contact angles. Be sure to record which method was used for future comparison. Also be sure that retains of the substrate used for these measurements are kept well sealed, free from contamination, and stored under laboratory conditions.

Even with these precautions, the polymer’s surface energy may change slightly over time, so this would be a more appropriate qualification method if only one or two dyne levels is suspect, rather than a whole batch. The key is to identify whether or not the suspect dyne levels appear as outliers in the curve describing dyne level vs. contact angle. For example, if your initial contact angles for 34, 38, and 42 dynes/cm test fluids, measured on HDPE, had been 20°, 32°, and 42°, and your retest showed contact angles of 22°, 26°, and 44°, that would be a clear signal that the 38 dyne/cm test fluid had changed meaningfully – its contact angle decreased by 6°, whereas the other two increased by 2° each.

A third method of qualification would be to compare the results of the questionable dyne solutions vs. those obtained with a fresh, unused set. This is probably the ideal verification: Whereas surface tension per se is the dominant determinant of accuracy, other factors can affect results to some degree. These include changes in pH or solubility, and the chance that a balance of evaporation and adsorption of contaminants has changed the test fluid’s chemical constituency without affecting its surface tension. At the liquid/solid interface where the dyne test takes place, these subtle changes can sometimes have a significant effect.

Under no circumstances should reagent grade surface tension test fluids be “validated” via a comparison to results from dyne pens of any kind, least of all go/no go permanent markers. Even ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens, which are designed to minimize the effect of surface contaminants on test results, are not appropriate for qualifying bottled solutions. On the other hand, keeping a master set of bottled test fluids in the Quality Lab – as a standard to which test markers can be compared if questions arise – is good practice, as the master batches will have been better protected during storage, and will be far less likely to have suffered from contamination or evaporation.

Neither do we recommend qualifying dyne solutions by comparing your dyne test results to contact angles produced with water as a probe fluid unless you maintain quality records from both tests on a continuing basis. In that case, a divergence from the expected correlation would certainly alert the tester that both methods need to be verified! If, however, you do not routinely do contact angle measurements, relying on tables or graphs that show a”conversion” from contact angle to dyne level is not a sound policy: The actual relationship between the data sets will often vary by up to a few dynes/cm, and sometimes even more, depending on the material you are testing.

Finally, in some cases, test fluid labels may become illegible or be removed. In that case, identification of correct dyne level would be the objective. Consider a case in which bottles of 34, 40, and 44 dyne/cm test fluids were in doubt. If you do not have access to a tensiometer, but do have a way to measure specific density, the three dyne levels can be readily discerned due to the significant change in specific density vs. dyne level, as shown in the chart above. I would not recommend this method for dyne levels with specific densities that are too similar; trying to sort an entire set of all levels in this fashion would be quite a puzzle indeed!

Question: How do you establish the shelf life of your products, and what influences how quickly they degrade?

Answer: This is one of the most difficult questions that we hear – and a frequent one, to boot.

I do not believe there is anyone on earth who truly understands the myriad of variables – let alone their inter-relationships – that affect the degradation of surface tension test fluids. So, the answer to the first half of the question is that, based on feedback from endusers and standard industry practice over time, we have de facto established shelf lives of five and six months, respectively, for ACCU DYNE TEST^TM surface tension test fluids and Marker Pens.

These shelf lives reflect our best estimate of a reasonable time frame through which we can guarantee that our product will not lose accuracy without some specific identifiable external cause that explains a change in performance. The extra month on the test markers is due to their sealed environment, compared to bottled test fluids, which must be opened for use⁽¹⁾. It’s helpful to look at shelf life as a risk/reward decision, with the time frame set at the point where risk starts to appreciably increase.

In general, without use and kept sealed and protected from intense light, heat, etc., there is little degradation in accuracy for as long as 18 months or more. The problem is that the onset point and rate of degradation are not predictable, so the assurance level regarding accuracy drops progressively, even for shelved sets of test fluids (or test markers).

The second half of the question, which is the key to the most realistic predictable shelf life in real world use, is of greater practical interest. The change in properties is based on age; frequency of use; environmental conditions (elevated temperature and, less notably, humidity levels tend to accelerate aging); and exposure to evaporation or contamination, including airborne dust and aerosols, as well as what exists on the surface of samples to be tested. Evaporation is an issue because 2-ethoxyethanol evaporates at a faster rate than formamide, meaning that an unsealed container of dyne solution will increase in surface tension due to the change in the ratio of constituents. Contaminants not only tend to reduce the surface tension of the test fluids, they can also accelerate the aging process.

For ACCU DYNE TEST^TM Marker Pens, which use the same applicator tip from use to use and are sealed units, contamination is the primary concern, as long as care is taken to keep the caps tightly secured at all times when not in use. High slip films are especially likely to cause contamination problems, as the low surface energy slip agents bloom to the surface and will be more than happy to take residence in the tips of your test markers. To a lesser degree, the same is true for residual mold release on molded and formed parts. Flushing these compounds from the tip is the primary reason for flooding the tip before testing, and only reading results from the final test swath. Procedural details are available here.

As discussed extensively here, machine oils and other processing aids used in the metals industries are simply too aggressive for test markers; for these applications, the test should be performed only with bottled solutions, applied with swabs.

For bottled test fluids, evaporation, introduction of airborne contaminants, and water adsorption – a form of contamination – are the greatest threats. Obviously, the more often the bottles are used, the greater the chance that these processes will reach a level that has an impact on test results. Never re-use an applicator swab, even at the same dyne level, as doing so is a perfect way to introduce surface contaminants into the bottles of dyne solution.

It is more common for dyne solutions to wet more readily (produce a higher dyne level reading) as they age, but this effect is not universal, especially if evaporation has occurred.

Finally, for any enterprise that is ISO or similarly certified, to remain in compliance, test supplies must not be used after their approved shelf life. Ensuring regular deliveries of fresh product is probably the main advantage of our Autofill^TM replenishment system, which ensures automatic and timely re-supply. Even for customers that are not certified, I strongly recommend replacing dyne testing supplies at least every eight months. We have a number of testers who purchase on an annual basis, but I feel that is pushing things too far, even under the best of conditions. And, for plants that test frequently on an ongoing basis, a replenishment schedule of three months or even less is a reasonable precaution.

I trust these comments have been helpful – I’d like to offer more precise guidelines, but uncertainty is the nature of the beast, and there doesn’t seem to be much we can do to change that.

⁽¹⁾ Dropper (dispenser) bottles are essentially exempt from the environmental exposure consideration, as the tips needn’t be removed for use. However, since they are made from LDPE, rather than the more stable HDPE narrow and wide mouth bottles, we are still more comfortable with a conservative shelf life assignment.